miRNAs Get an Early Start on Translational Silencing

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) control gene expression by regulating mRNA stability and translation. Using cell-free in vitro systems, several labs have recently reported insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying miRNA-guided translational repression (Kiriakidou et al., 2007; Mathonnet et al., 2007; Thermann and Hentze, 2007; Wakiyama et al., 2007). These new findings indicate that miRNAs inhibit translation at early steps of initiation

MicroRNAs: From Decay to Decoy

MicroRNAs interact with Argonaute proteins to guide posttranscriptional gene silencing. Eiring et al. (2010) now show that miR-328 has a second function, acting as a decoy by binding to hnRNP E2 and lifting its translational repression of an mRNA involved in myeloid cell differentiation

MicroRNA processing without Dicer

The canonical processing of precursor microRNAs requires the endonuclease Dicer. A recent study shows that microRNAs can be processed independently of Dicer but instead require Argonaute 2

Biogenese der spleißosomalen UsnRNPs

Ribonukleoproteinpartikel (RNPs) sind Komplexe aus RNA und Proteinen, die entscheidende Funktionen bei Prozessen wie Translation, Telomer-Synthese, Protein-Import in das endoplasmatische Retikulum oder RNA-Prozessierung übernehmen. Obwohl stets neue Beispiele die Bedeutung von RNPs untermauern, sind grundlegende Aspekte ihrer Funktion noch unklar. So stellte sich zu Beginn dieser Arbeit die Frage, wie sich die Komponenten von RNPs zu funktionellen Gebilden zusammenlagern. In frühen in-vitro-Studien war beobachtet worden, dass sich RNPs spontan ausbilden und dieser Vorgang keine weiteren Faktoren benötigt. Daraus war die Hypothese abgeleitet worden, dass dies möglicherweise auch der in vivo Situation entsprechen könnte. Unerwartete Einblicke in die Biogenese von RNPs lieferten schliesslich Studien zum "survival motor neurons"-Protein (SMN), dem Krankheitsgenprodukt der spinalen Muskelatrophie. Antikörper gegen SMN und seinem Bindungspartner Gemin2 inhibierten in Xenopus laevis Oocyten die Ausformung von RNP-Untereinheiten des Spleißosoms - den U snRNPs und nährten den Verdacht, dass diese Proteine Hilfsfaktoren der U snRNP-Biogenese sein könnten. Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war daher, mechanistische Details über die Zusammenlagerung von U snRNPs in vivo zu ermitteln und die Rolle von SMN und Gemin2 zu untersuchen. Die wesentlichen Schritte der Biogenese von U snRNPs können experimentell in X. laevis Oocyten verfolgt werden. Nach dem Export der U snRNAs U1, U2, U4 und U5 in das Cytosol lagern sich dort jeweils sieben sogenannte Sm-Protein an ein gemeinsames Motiv der U snRNAs an und formen so die Grundstruktur jedes U snRNPs, die Sm-Core-Domäne. Hierauf folgen die Hypermethylierung der U snRNA-Kappe und der Import der Sm-Core-Domäne in den Zellkern, wo sich U snRNP-spezifische Proteine anlagern, ehe die reifen snRNPs am Spleißprozess teilnehmen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde zunächst ein zellfreies System entwickelt, durch das die Zusammenlagerung von U snRNPs in der Komplexität des Cytosols untersucht werden konnte. Unter Verwendung von Extrakten aus Xenopus laevis-Eiern oder HeLa-Zellen konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Ausbildung der Sm-Core-Domäne, entgegen bisheriger Vermutungen, nicht spontan erfolgt, sondern Energie in Form von ATP benötigt. Aus Depletionsversuchen wurde deutlich, dass SMN unter diesen zellähnlichen Bedingungen für die snRNP-Biogenese unbedingt erforderlich ist. SMN, dies zeigten immunbiochemische Reinigungen, ist in der Zelle mit 17 verschiedenen Proteinen assoziiert, die hier erstmals vollständig identifiziert wurden. Dieser SMN-Komplex enthält bereits alle Sm-Proteine, jedoch keine U snRNAs. Anhand direkten Sm-Protein-Transferstudien wurde klar, dass der SMN-Komplex allein nicht nur notwendig sondern auch hinreichend für die Ausbildung der Sm-Core-Domäne, ist. Dennoch konnte mit dem pICln-Komplex ein Proteinkomplex entdeckt werden, der mit dem SMN-Komplex interagiert und dessen Aktivität erheblich steigert. Der pICln-Komplex enthält eine neuartige Methyltransferase, die Arginylreste in den Sm-Proteinen B/B’, D1 und D3 zu symmetrischen Dimethylargininen modifiziert. Es ist bekannt, dass hierdurch die Bindung von Sm-Proteinen an SMN verstärkt wird. Die vorliegenden Daten weisen darauf hin, dass SMN- und pICln-Komplexe eine funktionelle Einheit bilden, in der Modifikation und Transfer der Sm-Proteine koordiniert ablaufen. Erste Erkenntnisse aus Versuchen mit HeLa-Zellen und Patientenzelllinien deuten an, dass reduzierte Menge des SMN-Komplexes mit einer reduzierten U snRNP-Zusammenlagerungsaktivität einhergehen, und dass dies einen biochemischen Defekt in Spinaler Muskelatrophie darstellen könnte. In einem weiteren Projekt wurde mit Hilfe von Datenbankanalysen und biochemischen Strategien das SMN-homologe Protein SMNrp identifiziert und charakterisiert. Biochemische Studien zeigten, dass SMNrp eine Komponente des U2 snRNPs ist und eine essentielle Rolle beim Spleißen ausführt. Kernextrakte die kein SMNrp enthalten wiesen einen Defekt der Spleißosomen-Zusammenlagerung auf der Stufe des „prä-Spleißosoms“ auf. SMNrp ist demnach ein Zusammenlagerungsfaktor des Spleißosoms und bezüglich dieser Funktion dem U snRNP-Zusammenlagerungsfaktor SMN ähnlich

siRNA Specificity: RNAi Mechanisms and Strategies to Reduce Off-Target Effects

Short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) are processed from long double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), and a guide strand is selected and incorporated into the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). Within RISC, a member of the Argonaute protein family directly binds the guide strand and the siRNA guides RISC to fully complementary sites on-target RNAs, which are then sequence-specifically cleaved by the Argonaute protein—a process commonly referred to as RNA interference (RNAi). In animals, endogenous microRNAs (miRNAs) function similarly but do not lead to direct cleavage of the target RNA but to translational inhibition followed by exonucleolytic decay. This is due to only partial complementarity between the miRNA and the target RNA. SiRNAs, however, can function as miRNAs, and partial complementarity can lead to miRNA-like off-target effects in RNAi applications. Since siRNAs are widely used not only for screening but also for therapeutics as well as crop protection purposes, such miRNA-like off-target effects need to be minimized. Strategies such as RNA modifications or pooling of siRNAs have been developed and are used to reduce off-target effects

The mammalian TRIM-NHL protein TRIM71/LIN-41 is a repressor of mRNA function

TRIM-NHL proteins are conserved regulators of development and differentiation but their molecular function has remained largely elusive. Here, we report an as yet unrecognized activity for the mammalian TRIM-NHL protein TRIM71 as a repressor of mRNAs. We show that TRIM71 is associated with mRNAs and that it promotes translational repression and mRNA decay. We have identified Rbl1 and Rbl2, two transcription factors whose down-regulation is important for stem cell function, as TRIM71 targets in mouse embryonic stem cells. Furthermore, one of the defining features of TRIM-NHL proteins, the NHL domain, is necessary and sufficient to target TRIM71 to RNA, while the RING domain that confers ubiquitin ligase activity is dispensable for repression. Our results reveal strong similarities between TRIM71 and Drosophila BRAT, the best-studied TRIM-NHL protein and a well-documented translational repressor, suggesting that BRAT and TRIM71 are part of a family of mRNA repressors regulating proliferation and differentiatio

miRA: adaptable novel miRNA identification in plants using small RNA sequencing data

BACKGROUND: MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short regulatory RNAs derived from longer precursor RNAs. miRNA biogenesis has been studied in animals and plants, recently elucidating more complex aspects, such as non-conserved, species-specific, and heterogeneous miRNA precursor populations. Small RNA sequencing data can help in computationally identifying genomic loci of miRNA precursors. The challenge is to predict a valid miRNA precursor from inhomogeneous read coverage from a complex RNA library: while the mature miRNA typically produces many sequence reads, the remaining part of the precursor is covered very sparsely. As recent results suggest, alternative miRNA biogenesis pathways may lead to a more diverse miRNA precursor population than previously assumed. In plants, the latter manifests itself in e.g. complex secondary structures and expression from multiple loci within precursors. Current miRNA identification algorithms often depend on already existing gene annotation, and/or make use of specific miRNA precursor features such as precursor lengths, secondary structures etc. Consequently and in view of the emerging new understanding of a more complex miRNA biogenesis in plants, current tools may fail to characterise organism-specific and heterogeneous miRNA populations. RESULTS: miRA is a new tool to identify miRNA precursors in plants, allowing for heterogeneous and complex precursor populations. miRA requires small RNA sequencing data and a corresponding reference genome, and evaluates precursor secondary structures and precursor processing accuracy; key parameters can be adapted based on the specific organism under investigation. We show that miRA outperforms the currently best plant miRNA prediction tools both in sensitivity and specificity, for data involving Arabidopsis thaliana and the Volvocine algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii; the latter organism has been shown to exhibit a heterogeneous and complex precursor population with little cross-species miRNA sequence conservation, and therefore constitutes an ideal model organism. Furthermore we identify novel miRNAs in the Chlamydomonas-related organism Volvox carteri. CONCLUSIONS: We propose miRA, a new plant miRNA identification tool that is well adapted to complex precursor populations. miRA is particularly suited for organisms with no existing miRNA annotation, or without a known related organism with well characterized miRNAs. Moreover, miRA has proven its ability to identify species-specific miRNAs. miRA is flexible in its parameter settings, and produces user-friendly output files in various formats (pdf, csv, genome-browser-suitable annotation files, etc.). It is freely available at https://github.com/mhuttner/miRA .The authors acknowledge funding from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (SFB 960), the Bavarian Genome Research Network (BayGene), and the Bavarian Biosystems Network (BioSysNet)

Epstein-Barr Virus EBER Transcripts Affect miRNA-Mediated Regulation of Specific Targets and Are Processed to Small RNA Species

The oncogenic Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) expresses 44 mature microRNAs and two non-coding EBER RNAs of 167 (EBER1) and 172 (EBER2) nt length. MiRNA profiling of NK/T cell lines and primary cells and Northern blotting of EBV-infected cell lines and primary tumors revealed processing of EBER1 to short 5′-derived RNAs of approximately 23, 52 and 70 nt (EBER123, EBER152, and EBER170) and of EBER2 to 3′ fragments. The biogenesis of these species is independent of Dicer, and EBER123 does not act like a miRNA OPEN ACCESS Non-Coding RNA 2015, 1 171 to target its complementary sequence. EBER1, EBER2 and EBER123 were bound by the lupus antigen (La), a nuclear and cytoplasmic protein that facilitates RNAi. Consistent with this, the EBERs affect regulation of interleukin 1alpha (IL1α) and RAC1 reporters harboring miR target sequences, targets of miR-142-3p. However, the EBERs have no effect upon another target of miR-142-3p, ADCY9, nor on TOMM22, a target of ebv-miR-BART16, indicative of selective modulation of gene expression by the EBERs

Seed sequence polymorphism rs2168518 and allele-specific target gene regulation of hsa-miR-4513

Acknowledgements We thank Lisa Michaelis and Dr Karolina Plößl (Institute of Human Genetics, University of Regensburg) for excellent technical help and thorough proofreading of the manuscript, respectively. We thank Marina Sauer and Franz-Stephan Attenkofer (Institute of Human Genetics, University of Regensburg) for their support in generating the luciferase reporter vectors. Conflict of Interest statement. The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results. Funding German Research Foundation (GR5065/1-1 to F.G.); and the Helmut Ecker Foundation (Ingolstadt, Germany) (no. 05/17 to B.H.F.W).Peer reviewedPublisher PD

Phosphorylation of human Argonaute proteins affects small RNA binding

Argonaute (Ago) proteins are highly conserved between species and constitute a direct-binding platform for small RNAs including short-interfering RNAs (siRNAs), microRNAs (miRNAs) and Piwi interacting RNAs (piRNAs). Small RNAs function as guides whereas Ago proteins are the actual mediators of gene silencing. Although the major steps in RNA-guided gene silencing have been elucidated, not much is known about Ago-protein regulation. Here we report a comprehensive analysis of Ago2 phosphorylation in human cells. We find that the highly conserved tyrosine Y529, located in the small RNA 5′-end-binding pocket of Ago proteins can be phosphorylated. By substituting Y529 with a negatively charged glutamate (E) mimicking a phosphorylated tyrosine, we show that small RNA binding is strongly reduced. Our data suggest that a negatively charged phospho-tyrosine generates a repulsive force that prevents efficient binding of the negatively charged 5′ phosphate of the small RNA